George III had his difficulties with the feisty Emperor Ch'ien Lung, whose reign lasted for 60 years, as well as with the American colonists
Kowtow is the Chinese ceremony of kneeling and touching the forehead to the ground in the worship of deities or to show respect for elders and dynastic rulers. Kowtow literally means "striking the head". The rite seems to have originated in the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-219 A.D.) and is still practiced by some Chinese.
Japanese also have the kowtow. It is called dogeza and was considered a part of samurai etiquette until the Meiji Restoration of 1867. Although modified, the custom of this kneeling bow still prevails in present-day Japan. Women especially greet each other with a kowtow on the tatami or straw matting.
It was partly because of the lack of the kowtow ceremony that Occidentals were called "barbarians" by the Chinese and Japanese until comparatively recent times. Refusal of Occidentals to kowtow was a stumbling block in the growth of East-West trade. The biggest kowtow incident in history took place in 1793 when George, Earl of Macartney, first British ambassador to China, was received in audience by Emperor Ch'ien Lung (also spelled K'ien Lung), fourth monarch of the Ch'ing or Manchu dynasty.
The Macartney mission was sent by King George III at the suggestion of the East India Company to promote Sino-British trade. Accompanied by some 50 officers and 600 men and with 600 cases of presents, Ambassador Macartney sailed from Portsmouth in September of 1792 and arrived at Taku near Tientsin in August of the following year.
Emperor Ch'ien Lung was in his summer palace at Jehol, Inner Mongolia, when Macartney reached Peking. The British envoy was received in audience at Jehol, but refused to perform the kowtow ceremony because he considered it an insupportable insult. Lord Macartney finally was permitted to see the emperor in the same manner that he would have been received by the King of England. Displeased with English "barbarism", Emperor Ch'ien Lung sent the following "mandate" to King George III:
"You, O King, live beyond the confines of many seas, nevertheless, impelled by your humble desire to partake of the benefits of our civilization, you have dispatched a mission respectfully bearing your memorial. Your envoy has crossed the seas and paid his respects at my court on the anniversary of my birthday. To show your devotion, you have also sent offerings of your country's produce.
"I have perused your memorial: the earnest terms in which it is couched reveal a respectful humility on your part, which is highly praiseworthy. In consideration of the fact that your ambassador and his deputy have come a long way with your memorial and tribute, I have shown them high favor and allowed them to be introduced into my presence. To manifest my indulgence, I have entertained them at a banquet and made them numerous gifts. I have also caused presents to be forwarded to the naval commander and six hundred of his officers and men, although they did not come to Peking, so that they too may share in my all-embracing kindness.
"As to your entreaty to send one of your nationals to be accredited to my Celestial Court and to be in control of your country's trade with China, this request is contrary to all usage of my dynasty and cannot possibly be entertained. It is true that Europeans, in the service of the dynasty, have been permitted to live at Peking, but they are compelled to adopt Chinese dress, they are strictly confined to their own precincts and are never permitted to return home. You are presumably familiar with our dynastic regulations. Your proposed envoy to my court could not be placed in a position similar to that of European officials in Peking who are forbidden to leave China, nor could he, on the other hand, be allowed liberty of movement and the privilege of corresponding with his own country; so that you would gain nothing by his residence in our midst.
"Moreover, our Celestial Dynasty possesses vast territories, and tribute missions from the dependencies are provided for by the Department for Tributary States, which ministers to their wants and exercises strict control over their movements. It would be quite impossible to leave them to their own devices. Supposing that your envoy should come to our court, his language and national dress differ from that of our people, and there would be no place in which to bestow him. It may be suggested that he might imitate the Europeans permanently resident in Peking and adopt the dress and customs of China, but, it has never been our dynasty's wish to force people to do things unseemly and inconvenient. Besides, supposing I sent an ambassador to reside in your country, how could you possibly make for him the requisite arrangement? Europe consists of many other nations besides your own. If each and all demanded to be represented at our court, how could we possibly consent? The thing is utterly impracticable. How can our dynasty alter its whole procedure and system of etiquette, established for more than a century, in order to meet your individual views? If it be said that your object is to exercise control over your country's trade, your nationals have had full liberty to trade at Canton for many a year, and have received the greatest consideration at our hands. Missions have been sent by Portugal and Italy, preferring similar requests. The Throne appreciated their sincerity and loaded them with favors, besides authorizing measures to facilitate their trade with China. You are no doubt aware that, when my Canton merchant, Wu Chao-ping, was in debt to the foreign ships, I made the Viceroy advance the monies due, out of the provincial treasury, and ordered him to punish the culprit severely. Why then should foreign nations advance this utterly unreasonable request to be represented at my court? Peking is nearly two thousand miles from Canton, and at such a distance what possible control could any British representative exercise?
"If you assert that your reverence for our Celestial Dynasty fills you with a desire to acquire our civilization, our ceremonies and code of laws differ so completely from your own that, even if your envoy were able to acquire the rudiments of our civilization, you could not possibly transplant our manners and customs to your alien soil. Therefore, however adept the envoy might become, nothing would be gained thereby.
"Swaying the wide world, I have but one aim in view, namely, to maintain a perfect governance and to fulfill the duties of the State: strange and costly objects do not interest me. If I have commanded that the tribute offerings sent by you, O King, are to be accepted, this was solely in consideration for the spirit which prompted you to dispatch them from afar. Our dynasty's majestic virtue has penetrated unto every country under Heaven, and kings of all nations have offered their costly tribute by land and sea. As your ambassador can see for himself, we possess all things. I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and have no use for your country's manufactures. This then is my answer to your request to appoint a representative at my court, a request contrary to our dynastic usage, which would only result in inconvenience to yourself. I have expounded my wishes in detail and have commanded your tribute envoys to leave in peace on their homeward journey. It behooves you, O King, to respect my sentiments and to display even greater devotion and loyalty in future, so that, by perpetual submission to our Throne, you may secure peace and prosperity for your country here after. Besides making gifts (of which I enclose an inventory) to each member of your mission, I confer upon you, O King, valuable presents in excess of the number usually bestowed on such occasions, including silks and curios - a list of which is likewise enclosed. Do you reverently receive them and take note of my tender goodwill toward you! A special mandate."
Despite this refusal, Macartney proposed the signing of a commercial treaty through the Grand Council at Peking. This was rejected in Ch'ien Lung's second mandate to the British monarch:
"You, O King, from afar have yearned after the blessings of our civilization, and in your eagerness to come into touch with our converting influence have sent an embassy across the sea bearing a memorial. I have already taken note of your respectful spirit of submission, have treated your mission with extreme favor and loaded it with gifts, besides issuing a man date to you, O King, and honoring you with the bestowal of valuable presents. Thus has my indulgence been manifested.
"Yesterday your ambassador petitioned my ministers to memorialize me regarding your trade with China, but his proposal is not consistent with our dynastic usage and cannot be entertained. Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country's barbarian merchants, have carried on their trade with our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many years, although our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders. There was therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce. But as the tea, silk and porcelain which the Celestial Empire produces, are absolute necessities to European nations and to yourselves, we have permitted, as a signal mark of favor, that foreign hangs (business houses) should be established at Canton, so that your wants might be supplied and your country thus participate in our beneficence. But your ambassador has now put forward new requests which completely fail to recognize the Throne's principle to 'treat strangers from afar with indulgence', and to exercise a pacifying control over barbarian tribes the world over. Moreover, our dynasty, swaying the myriad races of the globe, extends the same benevolence toward all. Your England is not the only nation trading at Canton. If other nations, following your bad example, wrongfully importune my ear with further impossible requests, how will it be possible for me to treat them with easy indulgence? Nevertheless, I do not forget the lonely remoteness of your island, cut off from the world by intervening wastes of sea, nor do I overlook your excusable ignorance of the usages of our Celestial Empire. I have consequently commanded my ministers to enlighten your ambassador on the subject, and have ordered the departure of the mission. But I have doubts that, after your envoy's return he may fail to acquaint you with my view in detail or that he may be lacking in lucidity, so that I shall now proceed to take your requests seriatim and to issue my mandate on each question separately. In this way you will, I trust, comprehend my meaning.
"(1) Your ambassador requests facilities for ships of your nation to call at Ningpo, Chusan, Tientsin and other places for purposes of trade. Until now trade with European nations has always been conducted at Aomen (Macao), where the foreign hongs are established to store and sell foreign merchandise. Your nation has obediently complied with this regulation for years past without raising any objection. In none of the other ports named have hangs been established, so that even if your vessels were to proceed thither, they would have no means of disposing of their cargoes. Furthermore, no interpreters are available, so you would have no means of explaining your wants, and nothing but general inconvenience would result. For the future, as in the past, I decree that your request is refused and that the trade shall be limited to Aomen.
"(2) The request that your merchants may establish a repository in the capital of my Empire for the storing and sale of your produce, in accordance with the precedent granted to Russia, is even more impracticable than the last. My capital is the hub and center about which all quarters of the globe revolve. Its ordinances are most august and its laws are strict in the extreme. The subjects of our dependencies have never been allowed to open places of business in Peking. Foreign trade has hitherto been conducted at Aomen, because it is conveniently near to the sea, and therefore an important gathering place for the ships of all nations sailing to and fro. If warehouses were established in Peking, the remoteness of your country lying far to the northwest of my capital would render transport extremely difficult. Before Kiakhta was opened, the Russians were permitted to trade at Peking, but the accommodation furnished to them was only temporary. As soon as Kiakhta was available, they were compelled to with draw from Peking, which has been closed to their trade these many years. Their frontier trade at Kiakhta is on all fours with your trade at Aomen. Possessing facilities at the latter place, you now ask for further privileges at Peking, although our dynasty observes the severest restrictions respecting the admission of foreigners within its boundaries, and has never permitted the subjects of dependencies to cross the Empire's barriers and settle at will amongst the Chinese people. This request is also refused.
"(3) Your request for a small island near Chusan, where your merchants may reside and goods be warehoused, arises from your desire to develop trade. As there are neither foreign hangs nor interpreters in or near Chusan, where none of your ships nave ever called, such an island would be utterly useless for your purposes. Every inch of the territory of our Empire is marked on the map and the strictest vigilance is exercised over it all: even tiny islets and far-lying sandbanks are clearly defined as part of the provinces to which they belong. Consider, moreover, that England is not the only barbarian land which wishes to establish relations with our civilization and trade with our Empire: supposing that other nations were all to imitate your evil example and beseech me to present them each and all with a site for trading purposes, how could I possibly comply? This also is a flagrant infringement of the usage of my Empire and cannot possibly be entertained.
"(4) The next request, for a small site in the vicinity of Canton city, where your barbarian merchants may lodge or, alternatively, that there be no longer any restrictions over their movements at Aomen, has arisen from the following causes. Hitherto, the barbarian merchants of Europe have had a definite locality assigned to them at Aomen for residence and trade, and have been forbidden to encroach an inch beyond the limits assigned to that locality. Barbarian merchants having business with the hongs have never been allowed to enter the city of Canton; by these measures, disputes between Chinese and barbarians are prevented, and a firm barrier is raised between my subjects and those of other nations. The present request is quite contrary to precedent; further more, European nations have been trading with Canton for a number of years and, as they make large profits, the number of traders is constantly increasing. How would it be possible to grant such a site to each country? The merchants of the foreign hangs are responsible to the local officials for the proceedings of barbarian merchants and they carry out periodical inspections. If these restrictions were withdrawn, friction would inevitably occur between the Chinese and your barbarian subjects, and the results would militate against the benevolent regard that I feel toward you. From every point of view, therefore, it is best that the regulations now in force should continue unchanged.
"(5) Regarding your request for remission or reduction of duties on merchandise discharged by your British barbarian merchants at Aomen and distributed throughout, the interior, there is a regular tariff in force for barbarian merchants' goods, which applies equally to all European nations. It would be as wrong to increase the duty imposed on your nation's merchandise on the ground that the bulk of foreign trade is in your hands, as to make an exception in your case in the shape of specially reduced duties. In the future, duties shall be levied equitably without discrimination between your nation and any other, and, in order to manifest my regard, your barbarian merchants shall continue to be shown every consideration at Aomen.
"(6) As to your request that your ships shall pay the duties leviable by tariff, there are regular rules in force at the Canton Customhouse respecting the amounts payable, and since I have refused your request to be allowed to trade at other ports, this duty will naturally continue to be paid at Canton as heretofore.
"(7) Regarding your nation's worship of the Lord of Heaven, it is the same religion as that of other European nations. Ever since the beginning of history, sage emperors and wise rulers have bestowed on China a moral system and inculcated a code, which from time immemorial has been religiously observed by the myriads of my subjects. There has been no hankering after heterodox doctrines. Even the European (missionary) officials in my capital are forbid den to hold intercourse with Chinese subjects; they are restricted within the limits of their appointed residences, and may not go about propagating their religion. The distinction between Chinese and barbarian is most strict, and your ambassador's request that barbarians shall be given full liberty to disseminate their religion is utterly unreasonable.
"It may be, O King, that the above proposals have been wantonly made by your ambassador on his own responsibility, or peradventure you yourself are ignorant of our dynastic regulations and had no intention of transgressing them when you expressed these wild ideas and hopes. I have ever shown the greatest condescension to the tribute missions of all states which sincerely yearn after the blessings of civilization, so as to manifest my kindly indulgence. I have even gone out of my way to grant any requests which were in any way consistent with Chinese usage. Above all, upon you, who live in a remote and inaccessible region, far across the spaces of ocean, but who have shown your submissive loyalty by sending this tribute mission, I have heaped benefits far in excess of those accorded to other nations. But the demands presented by your embassy are not only a contravention of dynastic tradition, but would be utterly unproductive of good result to yourself, besides being quite impracticable. I have accordingly stated the facts to you in detail, and it is your bounden duty reverently to appreciate my feelings and to obey these instructions henceforward for all time, so that you may enjoy the blessings of perpetual peace. If after the receipt of this explicit decree, you lightly, give ear to the representation of your subordinates and allow your barbarian merchants to proceed to Chekiang and Tientsin, with the object of landing and trading there, the ordinances of my Celestial Empire are strict in the extreme, and the local officials, both civil and military, are bound reverently to obey the aw of the land. Should your vessels touch the shore, your merchants will assuredly never be permitted to land or to reside there, but will be subject to instant expulsion. In that event your barbarian merchants will have had a long journey for nothing. Do not say that you were not warned in due time! Tremblingly obey and show no negligence A special mandate!
Despairing of progress, the Macartney mission left Peking for England on October 7 of the same year.
Ch'ien Lung, who ruled the Middle Kingdom for 60 years beginning in 1736, was a man of many parts. Militarily, he carried out "Ten Great Campaigns", including expeditions in Annam, Burma, India, Nepal, Tibet and Turkestan. Culturally, he was a poet and patron of arts. He initiated compilation of the Ssu-ku Ch'uan-shu or the Complete Collection of the Four Treasures. It consists of nearly 80,000 volumes of classics, history, philosophy and belles-lettres.
In 1796, Ch'ien Lung voluntarily abdicated in favor of his son, Chia Ch'ing. It is said that Ch'ien Lung did not wish to rule for longer than his grandfather, K'ang Hsi (1662-1723), who is famous for the 49,030-character dictionary that bears his name.
Two days before his abdication, Emperor Ch'ien Lung addressed the following letter to King George III:
"Chu Kuei (Viceroy of Canton) memorializes us that the King of England has forwarded a memorial with tribute. Two years ago, on the occasion of the tribute mission from the King coming to Peking, we conferred upon him many valuable presents, so he has now dispatched a further memorial with offerings of tribute, thus indicating his loyal sincerity. We raised absolutely no objection to the fact of his having omitted to send a mission on this occasion, and are graciously pleased to accept his offerings. In addition, we bestow upon him the following mandate: Your nation is inaccessible, lying far beyond the dividing seas, but you sent a mission with a memorial and tribute to pay homage at our court, and we, in recognition of your loyal sincerity, conferred upon you our mandate and valuable gifts, as evidence of our satisfaction. Now, O King, you have again prepared a memorial and offerings, which have been conveyed by your barbarian vessels to Canton and transmitted to us. Your reverent submission to our person is manifest. Our Celestial Dynasty, which sways the wide world, attaches no value to the costly resents which are offered at our court: what we appreciate is the humble spirit of the offerers. We have commanded our viceroy to accept your tribute in order that your reverence may be duly recognized.
"As regarding our sending of a punitive expedition to Nepal, our commander-in-chief marched at he head of a great many into that country, occupied he chief strategic points, and terrified the Ghoorkas into grovelling submission to our majestic Empire. Our commander-in-chief duly memorialized us, and we, whose Imperial clemency is worldwide, embracing Chinese and foreigners alike, could not endure the thought of exterminating the entire population of the country. Accordingly we accepted their surrender. At that time our commander-in-chief duly informed us of your having dispatched a mission into Tibet, with a petition to our resident, stating that you had advised the Nepalese to surrender. But at the time of your petition our troops had already gained a complete victory and the desired end had been attained. We were not obliged to trouble your troops to render assistance. You allude to this matter in your present memorial, but are doubtless ignorant of the precise course of events in Nepal, as your tribute mission was on its way to Peking, at the time of these occurrences. Nevertheless, O King, you entertained a clear perception of your duty toward us, and your reverent acknowledgment of our dynasty's supremacy is highly praiseworthy.
"We therefore now bestow upon you various costly gifts. Do you, O King, display even more energetic loyalty in the future and endeavor to deserve forever our gracious affection, so that we may conform to our earnest resolve to pacify distant tribes and to manifest our Imperial clemency.
"Chu Kuei is to hand this mandate to your agent, for transmission to yourself, in order that you may be encouraged to display still greater gratitude and reverent submission hereafter, in acknowledgment of our indulgence.
"It is contrary to our dynastic ordinances for our officials to enter into social relations with barbarians, and Chu Kuei acted therefore quite properly in returning the presents which were sent to the former viceroy and superintendent of customs at Canton."